ZPRA’s ‘Imbokodos’, the people who contributed so much to the struggle 

By Bhekizulu B. Tshuma

The liberation struggle in Zimbabwe stretching effectively from the late 1960s ending in 1980, was a pivotal moment in the country’s history. 

Although a large portion of this vital history has concentrated on male commanders and fighters, female combatants were just as important in the struggle against white settler colonial domination as their male counterparts.

In 1978, the Rhodesian Air Force bombed Mkushi Camp in Zambia killing a large number of Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army (ZPRA) female combatants. 

Beyond this, ZPRA’s Imbokodos, as they were affectionately known, have not received the same level of public attention as their male counterparts. 

Very few, if any of them, have a high profile in our public spaces, whether history books or various forms of media. 

As a result of this lack of recognition, a significant majority of former ZPRA female combatants have lived miserable lives and dying in penury. 

Yet the pivotal role they played and the sacrifices they made extend well beyond the Mkushi bombings. 

In this first issue of the Newsletter on ZPRA’s participation in the liberation of Zimbabwe, we highlight the female fighters’ role, highlighting their bravery, tenacity, and strategic significance.

We write about Queen Malikwa, Belinda Ndebele, Hingani Mkandla and Grace Nuku, who share their liberation stories and contributions.

Not only were they ordinary women, but they were born into rural poverty and colonial discrimination. 

Their youth typified the contemporary experience of many black women in rural Matabeleland who experienced the indignity of poverty and white oppression first-han.

So, when the winds of nationalism swept across the country, these and many other women, as young as 14 years, saw the vital need to risk it all and jump borders to partake in the armed struggle.

In most cases, they left the country incognito without whispering even to their closest family members that they were skipping the border to join the struggle.

“It was unacceptable during that time [the 1970s] for women, especially youths, to be open about joining the struggle. I remember there were a whole lot of stories that women in the struggle were facing sexual abuse from their commanders. So, our parents would generally not give their blessings for us/for kids to go and join the struggle,” said Belinda Ndebele

However, because of the desire to see a free Zimbabwe, they left the country nonetheless.

The journey was fraught with challenges, and the training was so painful, but they did not bear any regret because it was necessary and they had to do it.

Ndebele joined the struggle in 1976 at the age of 17. Upon completing her basic training in Nampundwe, Zambia, she was among the few women selected for further military intelligence training.

After the training she was deployed at Victory camp in Zambia where they provided intelligence and security services before she moved back to Botswana at a ZAPU party house under National Security Organisation (NSO).

“As women, we were doing all sorts of duties. Us in the security and intelligence sections we played a big role in the execution of the struggle. In Zambia we provided security at the camp. In Botswana we deployed our intelligence skills to help in the screening of new recruits to prevent infiltration,” she said.

This view is shared by another ZPRA female combatant, Queen Malikwa, also a survivor of Mkushi Bombings.

Malikwa joined the struggle in 1977 at the age of 14.   She first crossed to Botswana, before making the arduous journey into  Zambia. Hailing from Gwanda, Malikwa and her friends were inspired by the wave of liberation that had gripped the district. 

Like Belinda, she did her training at Nampundwe Camp, which she finished in 1978. 

“Our roles included intelligence gathering, where we used our charm to get vital information on enemy movements and strategies often going unnoticed by enemy forces,” said Malikwa.

As a survivor of Mkushi bombings, she recalls how the Rhodesian Air Force besieged the skies above the Mkushi camp and left a trail of lifeless bodies within and around the camp. 

“We were attacked in 1979. This attack was carried out by the Rhodesian Air Force and resulted in the loss of many of our fellow female combatants.

“There was a river just behind the camp so many of us who survived went hid in that river because we were already trained,” said Malikwa.

Following the unfortunate Mkushi bombings, Malikwa was sent to Yugoslavia for further counterintelligence military training.

ZPRA also had a culture of promoting female cadres to command sections and in some instances platoons.  Interview with Malikwa : 

Hingani Mkandla is one such female combatant who joined the struggle in 1975 through the influence of her uncle. 

“I remember how my uncle jokingly said we should follow our peers who had committed to liberating the country. So, we organized as church youths and crossed to Botswana,” said Mkandla. 

Mkandla was part of the first battalion of ZPRA female cadres.

“After completing my training, I was made a section commander. It didn’t take long before I became a platoon commander at Solwezi Camp,” she said.

She is also among the cadres who survived bombings at Mkushi Camp, an event she said hardened and terrified surviving combatants in equal measure.  

“For some of us who survived that tragic event, it serves as a reminder of the sacrifices made by women and the need to honour their contributions to the liberation struggle,” said Mkandla. 

Despite their significant contributions, female combatants faced numerous challenges.

In 1979, Belinda was among military intelligence officers captured in Botswana by the Rhodesians.  

She was to be detained in Essexvale, now Esigodini and later moved to Lockview in Bulawayo.

“I think by the time we got to Bulawayo, they got too relaxed, so I escaped and went to look for Sydney Malunga’s house in Mpopoma because I had heard he was staying there.

“When I got there, Malunga took me to stay with Njini Ntunta, ZAPU official, at Barbourfields, where I stayed until we got our independence. But I was afraid thinking the Smith people would track me down,” said Ndebele.  

Most of the former ZPRA female combatants complain that after independence, they were sidelined in political processes, and their roles in the struggle were often overlooked in favour of their male counterparts.

Indeed, female combatants in Zimbabwe’s liberation struggle were crucial to the movement’s success. 

Their contributions, both on the battlefield and in support roles, reshaped the narrative of the struggle for independence. 

Recognising and honouring these women is essential for understanding the complexities of Zimbabwe’s history and for promoting gender equality in contemporary society. 

The accounts of female fighters serve as a reminder of the value of inclusivity and representation in the continuous struggle for justice and equality as Zimbabwe continues to negotiate its post-colonial identity.